Psychology Final

the philosophical view that certain kinds of knowledge are innate or inborn

1. Occipital 2. Parietal 3. Temporal 4. Frontal

processes visual information

processes information about touch

processes hearing and language

Movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory and judgment

Outermost brain layer

Housed near center of brain under the cerebral cortex

filters information from the senses to the cerebral cortex

regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst and sexual behavior

"master gland"

Hypothalamas, hippocampus and amygdala; controls motivation, emotion, learning and memory

creates memories and stores them elsewhere

formation of emotional memories

Directs intentional movements

Supports communication across hemispheres

Tectum and tegmentum

orients an organism in the environment

involved in movement and arousal

Area of the brain that coordinates information coming in and out of the spinal cord; Medulla, reticular formation, cerebellum and pons

Extension of spinal cord into skull; coordinates heart rate, circulation and respiration

regulates sleep, wakefulness and levels of arousal

Controls fine motor skills

Relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of brain

Central, peripheral, somatic, autonomic, sympathetic and parasympathetic

brain and spinal cord

connects Central to organs and muscles

set of nerves between voluntary muscles and central

Carries involuntary and automatic commands which control blood vessels, organs and glands

prepares the body in threatening situations

helps body return to natural resting state

Drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter

Drugs that block the action of a neurotransmitter

Neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating and aggressive behavior

neurotransmitter involved in states of vigilance or heightened awareness of dangers in the environment

primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain

major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain

neurotransmitter which regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure and emotional arousal

neurotransmitter involved in a number of functions, including voluntary motor control

knoblike structures that branch out from an axon

time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated

neurons that connect sensory neurons, motor neurons or other interneurons

neurons that carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce movement

neurons that receive information from the external world and convey this information to the brain via the spinal cord

support cells found in the nervous system

insulating layer of fatty materials

part of a neuron that carries information to other neurons, muscles or glands

part of a neuron that receives information from other neurons and relays it to the cell body

observation whose true purpose is hidden from both the observer and the person being observed

aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone wants or expects

description of a property in concrete, measurable terms

belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation

study of the causes and consequences of sociality

psychological approach that explains mind and behavior in terms of the adaptive value of abilities preserved over time by natural selection

attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity

links psychological processes to activities in the nervous system and other bodily processes

study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory and reasoning

psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

advocates that psychologists restrict themselves to the scientific study of objectively observable behavior

approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings

therapeutic approach focusing on bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness to understand psychological disorders

approach emphasizing the importance of unconscious mental processes in shaping feelings, thoughts and behaviors

study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment

now defunct theory that specific mental abilities and characteristics, ranging from memory to the capacity for happiness are localized brain

areas of the cerebral cortex composed of neurons that help provide sense and meaning to information registered in the cortex

environmental influences that determine whether or not genes are expressed

chemical modifications to DNA that can turn genes on or off

adding a methyl group to DNA

adding chemical modifications to proteins called histones that are involved in packaging DNA

device used to record electrical activity in the brain

takes place when many sensors in the body convert physical signals from the environment into neural signals sent to the CNS

methods which measure the strength of a stimulus and the observer's sensitivity to that stimulus

minimal intensity needed to just barely detect a stimulus in 50% of trials

minimal change in a stimulus that can just be barely detected

just noticeable stimulus is a constant proportion despite variations in intensity

response to a stimulus depends both on a person's sensitivity to the stimulus in the presence of noise and on a person's response criterion

sensitivity to prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time as an organism adapts to current conditions

light-sensitive tissue lining the back of the eyeball

process by which the eye maintains a clear image on the retina

photoreceptors that detect color, operate under normal daylight conditions and allow us to focus on fine detail

photoreceptors that become active under low-light conditions for night vision

area of the retina where vision is the clearest and there are no rods at all

location in the visual field that produces to sensation on the retina

pairs of visual neurons that work in opposition

part of the occipital lobe that contains the primary visual cortex

inability to recognize objects by sight

how features are linked together so that we see unified objects in our visual world rather than free-floating or miscombined features

perceptual mistake where features from multiple objects are incorrectly combined

idea focused attention is not required to detect the individual features that comprise a stimulus, but is required to bind those features

stating that even as aspects of sensory signals change, perception remains consistent

mental representation that can be directly compared to a viewed shape in the retinal image

aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with only one eye

difference in the retinal images of the two eyes that provides information about depth

perception of movement as a result of alternating signals appearing in rapid succession in different locations

when people fail to detect changes to the visual details of a scene

failure to perceive objects that are not the focus of attention

listener's experience of sound quality or resonance

fluid-filled tube that is the organ of auditory transduction

structure in the inner ear that undulates when vibrations from the ossicles reach the cochlear fluid

specialized auditory receptor neurons embedded in the basilar membrane

portion of the temporal lobe that contains the primary auditory cortex

process by which different frequencies stimulate neural signals at specific places along the basilar membrane

cochlea registers low frequencies via the firing rate of action potentials entering the auditory nerve

exploration of the environment by touching and grasping objects with our hands

feeling of pain when sensory information from internal and external areas converges on the same nerve cells in the spinal cord

idea that signals arriving from pain receptors in the body can be stopped by interneurons in the spinal cord via feedback from 2 directions

three fluid-filled semicircular canals and adjacent organs located next to the cochlea in each inner ear

receptor cells that initiate the sense of smell

brain structure located above the nasal cavity beneath the frontal lobes

biochemical odorants emitted by other members of its species that can affect an animal's behavior or physiology

how things seem to the conscious person

fundamental difficulty we have in perceiving the consciousness of others

issue of how the mind is related to the body

task in which people wearing headphones hear different messages presented to each ear

phenomenon in which people tune in one message even while they filter out others nearby

low-level sensory awareness and responsiveness that occurs when the mind inputs sensations and might output behavior

in which you know and are able to report your mental state

distinct level of consciousness in which the person's attention is drawn to the self as an object

attempt to change conscious states of mind

conscious avoidance of a thought

tendency of a thought to return to consciousness with greater frequency following suppression

processes that can produce ironic errors because monitoring for errors can itself produce them

active system encompassing a lifetime of hidden memories, instincts and desires and struggle to control these forces

mental process that removes unacceptable thoughts and memories from the consciousness and keeps them in the unconscious

mental processes that give rise to a person's thoughts, choices, emotions and behavior even though they are not experienced by the person

thought or behavior that is influenced by stimuli that a person cannot consciously report perceiving

naturally occurring 24 hour cycle

instrument which measures eye movement

a dream's apparent topic or superficial meaning

dream's true underlying meaning

theory that dreams are produced when the brain attempts to make sense of random neural activity that occurs during sleep

chemicals that influence consciousness or behavior by altering the brain's chemical message system

substances that reduce the activity of the CNS

idea that alcohol effects can be produced by people's expectations of how alcohol will influence them in particular situations

study design in which behavior is observed following the presence or absence of an actual stimulus and also a placebo stimulus

condition that results when alcohol hampers attention, leading people to response in simple ways to complex situations

substances that excite the CNS

highly addictive drugs derived from opium that relieve pain

drug whose use increases the risk of the subsequent use of more harmful drugs

response to high-risk behaviors that focuses on reducing the harm such behaviors have on people's lives

reduction of pain through hypnosis

process of transforming what we perceive, think or feel into an enduring memory

process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory

process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures

process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items

holds sensory information for a few seconds or less

fast-decaying store of visual information

fast-decaying store of auditory information

holds nonsensory information for more than a few seconds but less than a minute

keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it

combining small pieces of information into larger clusters more easily held in short-term memory

active maintenance of information in short-term storage

inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store

inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or surgery

process by which memories become stable in the brain

memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, requiring them to become consolidated again

process whereby communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further communication easier

external information that is associated with stores information and helps bring it to mind

idea that a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps recreate the specific way information was initially encoded

tendency for information to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval

idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match

process by which retrieving an item from long-term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items

act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences

influence of past experiences on later behavior and performance

gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice

enhanced ability to think of a stimulus as a result of recent expose to the stimulus

network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

forgetting what occurs with the passage of time

situations in which information learned later impairs memory for information acquired earlier

situations in which information learned earlier impairs memory for information acquired later

remembering to do things in the future

failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it

assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source

recall of when, where and how information was acquired

feeling of familiarity about something that hasn't been encountered before

tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections

intrusive recollection of events we wish we could forget

detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events

general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding

simple form of learning that occurs when presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus

something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism

reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus

previously neutral stimulus that produces a reliable response in an organism after being paired with a US

reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus

phase of classical conditioned when the CS and US are presented together

conditioning where a CS is paried with a stimulus that became associated with the US in an earlier procedure

gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US

tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period

the CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the CS used during acquisition

capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli

propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others

type of learning in which the consequences of an organism's behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future

behaviors that are followed by good things tend to be repeated and those that produce bad things are less likely to be repeated

behavior that an organism produces that has some impact on the environment

any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the behavior that led to it

any stimulus or event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behavior that led to it

in which reinforcers are presented at fixed-time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made

behavior is reinforced based on an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement

reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses has been made

delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses

only some responses made are followed by reinforcement

operant behaviors that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than under continuous reinforcemen

learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior

something is learned, but is not manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the future

mental representation of the physical features of the environment

process by which individuals initially learn a behavior by observing another individual, then serve as a model for others

learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and products of information acquisition

stimulus triggers activity in the body, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain

stimulus simultaneously triggers activity in the body and emotional experience in the brain

emotions are based on inferences about the causes of physiological arousal

evaluation of the emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus

strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience

changing one's emotional experience by changing the way one thinks about the emotion-eliciting stimulus

emotional expressions have the same meaning for everyone

norm for the appropriate expression of emotion

claim that people are motivated to experience pleasure and avoid pain

1. Excitement 2. Plateau 3. Orgasm 4. Resolution

motivation to take actions that are themselves rewarding

motivation to take actions that lead to a reward

motivation to experience a positive outcome

motivation not to experience a negative outcome

theory that people cope with their existential terror by developing a "cultural worldview"

smallest unit of sound that is recognizable as speech

set of rules that indicate how phonemes can be combined to produce speech sounds

smallest meaningful units of language

set of rules that indicate how morphemes can be combined to form words

set of rules that indicate how words can be combined to form phrases and sentences

meaning of a sentence

how a sentence is worded

children can map a word onto an underlying concept after only a single exposure

speech that is devoid of function morphemes and consists mostly of content words

language development is best explained as an innate capacity

collection of processes that facilitate language learning

syndrome characterized by an inability to learn the grammatical structure of language despite having otherwise normal intelligence

difficulty in producing or comprehending language

proposal that language shapes the nature of thought

members of a category have features that appear to be characteristic of category members but may not be possessed by every member

"best" or "most typical" member of a category

theory of categorization that argues we make category judgments by comparing a new instance with stored memories from other instances

characterized by an inabililty to recognize objects which belong to a particular category

we determine how likely something is to happen judging the value of the outcome then multiplying by 2

facilitates decision making but does not guarantee a solution will be reached

well-defined sequence of procedures or rules that guarantee a solution to a problem

when people think 2 events are more likely to occur together than either individual event

mental shortcut that involves making a probability judgment by comparing an object or event to a prototype of the object or event

when people give different answers to the same problem depending on how it is phrased

a framing effect in which people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation

people choose to take on risk when evaluation potential losses and avoid risks when evaluating potential gains

proposal that our minds evolved to notice how frequently things occur, not how likely they are to occur

process of searching for the means or steps to reduce differences between the current situation and desired goal

solving a problem by finding a similar problem with a known solution

tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed

people's judgments about whether to accept conclusions depend more on how believable the conclusions are than whether arguments are valid

determining whether a conclusion follows from 2 statements that are assumed to be true

obtained by dividing a person's mental age by the person's physical age then multiplying by 100

dividing a person's test score by the average test score then multiplying by 100

statistical technique that explains a large number of correlations in terms of a small number of underlying factors

suggesting every task requires a combination of general abilities and skills specific to the task

ability to see abstract relationships and draw logical inferences

ability to retain and use knowledge that was acquired through experience

describes the proportion of the difference between people's scores that can be explained by differences in their genes

fertilized egg that contains chromosomes from both a sperm and an egg

period of prenatal development that lasts from the 2nd week until about the 8th week

study of continuity and change across life span

2 week period of prenatal development that begins at conception

period of prenatal development that lasts from the 9th week until birth

formation of a fatty sheath around the axons of a neuron

agents that damage the process of developments, such as drugs and viruses

developmental disorder that stems from heavy alcohol use by the mother during pregnancy

stage of development that begins at birth and lasts between 18 and 24 months

emergency of the ability to execute physical action

specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation

describes tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the head to the feet

describes tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the center to the periphery

emergence of the ability to think and understand

stage of development from birth to infancy in which infants acquire information by sensing and moving around within it

theories about the way the world works

process by which infants apply their schemas in novel situations

begins at 18 to 24 months and lasts until about 11 or 14

begins at about 2 years and lasts until about 6 where children develop a preliminary understanding of the physical world

begins at about 6 and ends at 11 where children learn how various actions can affect or transform objects

quiantitative properties of an object are invariant despite changes in appearance

failure to understand the world appears differently to different people

begins at 11, children begin to learn to reason about abstract concepts

understanding human behavior is guided by mental representations

test developed to determine an attachment style

set of beliefs about the self, primary caregiver and the relationship between them

morality of an action is primarily determined by its consequences for the actor

morality of an action is determined by the extent to which it conforms to social rules

morality of an action is determined by a set of general principles that reflect core values

begins at around 11 to 14 and lasts until about 18 to 21

bodily structures directly involved in reproduction

bodily structures that change dramatically with sexual maturity but that are not directly involved in reproduction

begins at 18 to 21 and ends with death

in which a person provides subjective information about their own thoughts, feelings or behaviors

clinical questionnaire used to assess personality and psychological problems

tests designed to reveal inner aspects of individual's personalities by analysis of their responses to a standard series of ambiguous stimul

test in which inner thoughts and feelings are believed to be revealed by analysis of responses to unstructured inkblots

test in which respondents underlying motives, concerns and the way they see the social world are revealed through analysis of made up storie

traits of the five-factor model; openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism

regards personality as formed by needs, strivings and desires largely operating outside of awareness

active system composed of a lifetime of hidden memories, deepest instincts and desires and inner struggle to control these forces

part of mind containing drives present at birth; source of bodily needs, wants, desires and impulses

mental system reflecting internalization of cultural rules, mainly learned as parents exercise their authority

component of personality, developed through contact with the external world, enabling us to deal with life's practical demands

distinct early life stages through which personality is formed as children experience sexual pleasures from specific body areas

phenomenon in which a person's pleasure seeking drive becomes stuck or arrested at a particular psychosexual stage

1. experience centers on the pleasures and frustrations associated with the mouth, sucking, and being fed

2. dominated by the pleasure and frustrations associated with the anus, retention and expulsion of feces and urine and toilet training

3. dominated by pleasure, conflict and frustration associated with the phallic-genital region as well as coping w powerful incestuous feels

developmental experience in which a child's conflicting feelings towards the opposite-sex parent are resolved by id'ing with the same-sex pa

4. focus is on further development of intellectual, creative, interpersonal and athletic skills

5. final stage, time for the coming together of the mature adult personality with capacity to love

regards personality as governed by individual's ongoing choices and decision in the context of life and death

views personality in terms of how a person thinks about situations encountered in daily life and behaves in resposne

whether behavior is caused more by personality or by situational factors

dimensions people use in making sense of their experiences

person's assumptions about the likely consequences of a future behavior

person's tendency to perceive the control of rewards as internal to the self or external in the environment

person's explicit knowledge of his or her own behaviors, traits and other personal characteristics

tendency to take credit for successes but downplay responsibility for failures

reflects a grandiose view of the self combined with a tendency to seek admiration from and exploit others

principle stating animals aggress when their goals are thwarted

tendency for group discussion to focus on information all members share

tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than any members would have made alone

tendency for groups to reach consensus in order to facilitate interpersonal harmony

occurs when immersion in a group causes people to become less aware of their individual values

tendency for people to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who feel the same way

tendency for people to expend less effort when in a group than when alone

act of helping strangers in an emergency situation

behavior that benefits another without benefiting oneself

process by which evolution selects for individuals who cooperate with their relatives

behavior that benefits another with the expectation those benefits will be returned in the future

tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure

experience involving feelings of euphoria, intimacy and intense sexual attraction

experience involving affection, trust and concern for a partner's well-being

hypothesis people remain in relationships only as long as they perceive a favorable ratio of costs to benefits

state of affairs in which the cost-benefit ratios of two partners are roughly equal

ability to control another person's behavior

unwritten rule that people should benefit those who have benefited them

phenomenon that occurs when another person's behavior provides information about what is appropriate

influence strategy that involves getting someone to deny an initial request

tendency to do what others do simply because others are doing it

phenomenon occurs when another person's behavior provides information about what is true

answer

process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to reason

process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to habit or emotion

making a small request and then following it with a larger request

unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs

processes by which people come to understand others

tendency for people to behave as they are expected to behave

fear of confirming the negative beliefs that others may hold

tendency for people to see what they expect to see

tendency for people who receive disconfirming evidence to modify their stereotypes rather than abandon them

interference about the cause of a person's behavior

tendency to make a dispositional attribution even when we should instead make a situational attribution

tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviors while making dispositional attributions for the identical behavior of others

a three-stage physiological response that appears regardless of the stressor that is encountered

caps at the end of each chromosome that protect the ends and prevent them from sticking to each other

an enzyme that rebuilds telomeres at the tips of chromosomes

white blood cells which produce antibodies that fight infection

avoiding situations or thoughts that are reminders of a stressor and maintaining an artificially positive viewpoint

facing a stressor and working to overcome it

finding a new or creative way to think about a stressor that reduces its threat

reframing technique that helps people to cope with stress by developing positive ways to think about the situation

practice of intentional contemplation

use of an external monitoring device to obtain information about a bodily function and possibly gain control over that function

interaction between mind and body that can produce illness

set of psychological disorders where at least one significant bodily symptom is displayed

socially recognized set of rights and obligations linked with illness

persistent disturbance or dysfunction in behavior, thoughts or emotions that causes significant distress or impairment

abnormal psychological experiences are conceptualized as illnesses that have biological and environmental causes, defined symptoms and cures

classification system that describes the features used to diagnose each recognized mental disorder

co-occurrence of two or more disorders in a single individual

explains mental disorders as the result of interactions among biological, psychological and social factors

suggests a person may be predisposed for a psychological disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress

aims to guide the classification and understanding of mental disorders by revealing the basic processes that give rise to them

characterized by sudden occurrence of multiple psychological and physiological symptioms that contribute to a feeling of stark terror

specific phobia involving a fear of public places

characterized by chronic excessive worry and 3 or more of: restlessness, fatigue, concentration issues, irritability, muscle tensionnosleep

mental disorders that have mood disturbance as their predominant feature

same cognitive and bodily problems as in depression are present but they are less severe and last longer

moderately depressed mood persisting for at least 2 years and is punctuated by period of major depression

individuals who are prone to depression automatically attribute negative experiences to causes that are internal, stable and global

condition characterized by cycles of abnormal, persistent high mood and low mood

measure of how much hostility, criticism and emotional overinvolvement are used when speaking about a family member with a mental disorder

disorder characterized by the profound disruption of basic psychological processes; distorted perception of reality, etc..

thoughts and behaviors present in schizophrenia but not seen in those without the disorder

a patently false belief system, often bizarre and grandiose, that is maintained in spite of its irrationality

deficits or disruptions to normal emotions and behaviors

deficits in cognitive abilities, specifically executive functioning, attention and working memory

idea that schizophrenia involves an excess of dopamine activity

condition beginning in early childhood in which a person shows persistent communication deficits

persistent pattern of deviant behavior involving aggression to people or animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or breaking rules

enduring patterns of thinking, feeling, or relating to others or controllingimpulses that deviate from cultural expectations and causedistre

Paranoid, schizoid, shizotypal

Antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic

Avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive

pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others that begins in early childhood and continues into adulthood

deliberate destruction of body tissue in the absence of any intent to die

interaction between a socially sanctioned clinician and someone suffering from a psychological problem with goal of providing support

involves drawing on techniques from different forms of therapy, depending on the client and the problem

explore childhood events and encourage individuals to use this understanding to develop insight into problems

reluctance to cooperate with treatment for fear of confronting unpleasant unconscious material

event that occurs when analyst begins to assume a major significance in the client's life and client reacts to the analyst based on childhoo

form of psychotherapy that focuses on helping clients improve current relationships

assumes all individuals have a tendency toward growth and this growth can be facilitated

has the goal of helping the client become aware of his or her thoughts, behaviors, experiences and feelings and to own them

assumes disordered behavior is learned and symptom relief is changing bad behaviors into more constructive ones

form of behavior therapy in which clients are given tokens for desired behaviors which they can trade for rewards

confronting an emotion-arousing stimulus directly and repeatedly

helps a client identify and correct any distorted thinking about self, others, or world

teaches clients to question automatic beliefs that often lead to negative emotions

teaches individual to be fully present in each moment

blend of cognitive and behavioral therapeutic strategies

medications used to treat schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders

study of drug effects on psychological states and symptoms

involves inducing a brief seizure by delivering an electrical shock to the brain

involves placing a powerful pulsed magnet over a person's scalp, which alters neuronal activity

therapy that involves repeated exposure to bright light

surgical destruction of specific brain areas

disorder or symptom that occurs as a result of a medical or psychotherapeutic treatment itself