Marine Ecology II

Below the epipelagic zone, the _ zone, extending from 200m down to about _m

Below the mesopelagic zone, the _ zone, extending from 1000m to about _m deep

The deepest layer of the ocean, the _ zone, _m and below

Zone of the deep sea floor characterized by vast flat plains

Zone of the deep sea floor in a trench

Zone of open water within a deep sea trench

Portion of the seafloor in the bathypelagic zone

The open ocean, beyond the continental shelf

Open ocean over a continental shelf

Region of the coast between the high and low tide lines

The seafloor on a continental shelf, below the low tide line

The epipelagic zone is also called the _ zone because there is sufficient light for _

Type of phytoplankton that has a silica shell, found in polar and temperate regions

Type of phytoplankton, some of which may be bioluninescent or toxic, found mainly in tropical and subtropical latitutes

Type of phytoplankton that are broadly important, especially in the tropics, and possess calcium carbonate plates

The calcium carbonate plates of coccolithophores are now at risk from _

Primary production is measured in grams of _ fixed per m^2 per _

Primary production before respiration

Gross primary production (minus) respiration

Biomass in gC/m^2

Net primary production is more important in ecology because it is available to higher _

Primary production is the foundation for ocean _

Primary production is a major source for Earth's _

Primary production has a major effect on Earth's _

An anti-predator chemical released by damaged phytoplankton; enhances cloud formation and rainfall

Some dinoflagellates & diatoms bloom, producing toxic chemicals which can cause paralytic shellfish poisoning

Primary production is _% at sea, _% on land

How long does carbon usually reside in land plant biomass?

How long does carbon usually reside in small mobile phytoplankton?

Light and nutrients limit primary production _, and herbivores limit it _

The epipelagic zone is characterized by _ light and _ nutrients

The deep sea is characterized by _ light and _ nutrients

The term for the process by which sinking organic matter is deposited on the seafloor and sequesters carbon

Human activities put about _ gigatons of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere per year

Land vegetation uptakes about _ gigatons of carbon dioxide from the air per year

The ocean absorbs about _ gigatons of carbon dioxide per year via ocean _

There is net increase of _ gigatons per year of atmospheric carbon dioxide

Zooplanktonic crustaceans that are dominant in the ocean, are suspension feeders or micro-carnivores, and small-scale swimmers

Larger than copepods, suspension feeders, and abundant in upwelling areas such as the Antarctic

Zooplankton that are often bioluminescent

True jellyfish, that usually feed with nematocysts and are thus microcarnivores

Microcarnivores feed with _

_ feed with nematocysts

Colonial & polymorphic, most swimming & some with floats, microcarnivores

Large type of cnidarian siphonophore

A small type of cnidarian siphonophore, uses a sail to travel by wind

Gelatinous egg-shaped individuals with ciliary feeding on bacteria, fish eggs, & smaller zooplankton

Zooplankton relatives of benthic sea squirts; colonial or solitary, & ciliary suspension feeders

Zooplankton, often colonies of small individuals, feeding within an organic house

Arrow worms; carnivorous zooplankton

Single-celled protists, usually suspension feeders on bacteria

Calcareous protists, having pseudopods & feeding on bacteria

Protists with silica skeleton, single cell, feeding on bacteria

Marine biologists use _ to assay relative abundance of different plankton with different abilities to process _

_ is a useful immunological technique for probing phytoplankton species

Microorganisms are identified by _ probes used in conjunction with _

Rates of microbial processes can be monitored by _ techniques and real-time _

A local phytoplankton patch is a balance between population _ and dispersal by _

Water column _ of shelf waters in spring keeps phytoplankton near the well-lit surface

Abundance of phytoplankton due to water-column stability that keeps them near well-lit surface

A phytoplankton bloom collapses as surface _ are depleted and some dead phytoplankton sink to the bottom

Phototsynthetic pigments such as _ capture visible light in the _ of light

Light is attenuated in the water column through _ and _

Phtotsynthesis increases with increasing light intensity, up to a plateau, and is then _ by high light intensity

Use light and inorganic nutrients alone in photosynthesis

Require some biological product for photosynthesis

Absorb biological materials from other organisms

Dissolved organics, particulates, and living biomass have the approximate proportions _:_:_, respectively

Much particulate organic matter can arise from the collision of _ in phytoplankton

_ is available as ammonium, nitrate, and nitrite; essential for the production of _

Microbes regulate nitrogen through _, _, and _

_ is needed for ATP production in the cell and occurs in the water usually as _

Nitrogen and phosphate coming from deeper waters stimulates _

The result of nutrients recirculating with the surface waters

The ratio of nitrogen and phosphorus is often _, owing to the influence of phytoplankton _ processes

In the short term, nitrogen appears to be the _ outside a few low-productivity regions

Iron is crucial in the synthesis of _, _, and _

Crucial in the synthesis of cytochromes, ferredoxin, and proteins

In areas remote from land, iron is the _, as it is less available

Because silicon arrives by wind, areas remote from land are depleted of _

Nutrient uptake in phytoplankton _ with increasing nutrient concentration before leveling off

Environments low in nutrients select for phytoplankton that are _ in taking up nutrients at _ concentration

Nearshore environments, which are higher in nutrients, select for phytoplankton with a _ total nutrient uptake

The succession of phytoplankton follows the seasonal availability of _ and the excretion of _

The existence of photosynthetic and heterotrophic microbial groups presents an ecological _

Bacteria in the water column can rapidly take up _

In which dissolved organic substances are converted to a particulate form available to small-bodied consumers

Does not always control phytoplankton abundance

The behavior plankton exhibit when they move toward the surface during the night and descend during the day

Diurnal behavior in plankton may help them avoid _ and save _

Plankton have evolved defenses against predation - including _, _defenses, _, and _

Besides serving as deception and camouflage, bioluminescence may also _

Some phytoplankton produce _ to deter grazers

The upper layer of the ocean, with high light and low nutrients

The lower layer of the ocean has _ light and _ nutrients

Oxygen is _ in the deep sea because of _ circulation caused by downwelling at the _

The _ depth, around _m, is where the rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of respiration

The bottom of the _ zone, around _ m, is where the rate of photosynthesis is less than the rate of respiration

The _ depth, around _ m down, below which the rate of photosynthesis is less than the rate of respiration, causing plankton to _

Primary productivity is related to _ and light concentration

Six nutrients that limit primary production:

The most commonly limiting nutrient

A trace mineral nutrient

Used in diatom shells

A nutrient that is seldom limiting

At the center of a gyre, there is a _ temperature gradient, also called a _

An important metabolic catalyst

More than _% of the oceans have high light & nutrients but low primary production, due to a scarcity of _

_ mt of iron were spread by a ship, which caused _ mt of carbon to be deposited by the "_"

Along the west coast of the United States, primary production _ with latitude, as does _ input from rivers

Winter _ deposit iron on the continental shelf, and summer _ delivers it to the _ zone

Ocean deserts are _ through time, by up to _% per year due to the warming ocean causing more _ stratification

Tropcial seas are nutrient-_, while temperate seas depend on seasonal _ and polar seas depend on seasonal _

The rate of production of biological materials

The amount of biological material present at any one time

A linear sequence that reveals which organisms consume which other organisms in an environment from top carnivore to primary producer

A fuller diagram of trophic interatctions involving a network, including food chains

A food chain's efficiency depends on the number of _ and on the completeness of _ from one level to the next

A food chain can be used to calculate the potential _ at the top of the chain

Tropical food chains have _ trophic levels and are _ efficient than those in upwelling areas

Productivity can be measured by _ production during photosynthesis, using _ uptake and by remote _

Remote sensing is a satellite technique in which a _ detects chlorophyll, which is converted to productivity by means of fixed _

Primary productivity is _ in upwelling regions, coastal/continental shelf regions, and some oceanic boundary areas known as _

Areas where nutrients are brought to the surface

Gyre centers have very _ primary productivity

The shallow ocean has abundant _ and _ carbon, whereas the deep ocean has mostly _ carbon

Human activity in the past _ years has led the Earth to a CO2 level not seen in at least _ years

Carbon is transferred downward into the ocean by means of two kinds of _, and both critically affect global _

Colder, deeper waters act as a _ pump bringing carbon dioxide downward; while phytoplankton sinking to the sea-bed act as a _ pump

Increased sea level temperature might _ the action of the two types of carbon pumps

Global warming may have a _ feedback effect on planetary temperature, causing still more _ gases

Productivity and the biological pump may be stimulated by artificial additions of _

"_ of the phytoplankton": although they consume the same resources (light & nutrients), many phytoplankton spp. coexist w/out competitive _

The _ hypothesis states that each phytoplankton species in the dominant _ under different light & nutrient conditions, which change _

The rate of change of heterotroph biomass via consumer growth and reproduction

Zooplankton are limited by phytoplankton food (a _ effect) and predation (a _ effect)

A local _ relationship is apparent in the time lag between the life histories of phytoplankton vs. zooplankton

Pelagic food webs have _ trophic levels than on land, due to _ ecological efficiency, and creating _ predator size constraints

_ diet shifts are one reason for greater complexity of pelagic food webs

The result of animals consuming different foods at different stages of their life and having fewer/different predators later in life

Animals that prey on more than one trophic level

Protists that both photosynthesize and consume other organisms

In which dead phytoplankton are passed up the food web

In the microbial loop, _% of phytoplankton are eaten and _% die to become dissolved _ matter

The dissolved organic matter that results from dead phytoplankton is eaten by _, which are eaten by _ grazers, which are eaten by _

_% of primary production re-enters the system via the microbial loop

(Biomass stored in the consumer level) / (Energy stored in consumed level)

Large _ "short-circuit" the transfer of biomass from one trophic level to another

_% of phytoplankton biomass is transferred to krill, and _% of that is transferred to whales

Energy _ a system, matter _

The _ cycle is a fast matter cycle in the ocean, also called the _ pump

A fast matter cycle in the ocean (not carbon)

A slow matter cycle in the ocean

The shore zone between the lowest low tide and the highest high tide

The highest level of the intertidal has mostly _

The middle level of the intertidal zone is where _ dominate

The lowest level of the intertidal is dominated by _

Zonation is most commonly caused by relative resistance to _

The three hypotheses of what causes zonation: _limitations, _ limitations, or _ patterns

A physical limitation that results from too little immersion

A physical limitation that is very seldom in effect, the result of too little immersion

A physical limitation in which some organisms are ripped off the rocks by big waves

The two main biotic limitations in the intertidal zone are _ and _

The resource that organisms mostly compete for in the intertidal zone is _

In which tides sweep in such a way as to lay out barnacle larvae in non-overlapping zones

In calm bays, propagules of different species may settle at different levels on the shore, creating zones

When consumers have a strong effect on the structure of a community, it is a _ effect

When the availability of nutrients and primary production have strong effects on the structure of a community, it is a _ effect

Environmental stress and _ are abiotic stressors of top-down/bottom-up effects

A species that is responsible for the relative abundance of other species in a system

In which rare subordinate prey species become more rare with increased predation; the "predation-_-prey-_" hypothesis

In which low predation allows competitive exclusion by dominant competitor, and high predation drives prey species locally extinct

A nearly universal feature of the intertidal zone

Different _ occur in protected and wave-swept waters in the same area, and _ is an important force in this environment

The _ zone is alternatively a marine and a terrestrial habitat

Mobile intertidal animals may remain fixed at one _, becoming active at the time of _

Some animals _ up and down the shore with each tidal cycle in order to remain _

Changes in _ can reduce the risk of _, but there are often _

In the intertidal zone, water flow delivers _ and _, while primary productivity strongly regulates growth rates and _ of benthos

Zonation on _ is not as strong as in the rocky intertidal zone

Soft-sediment intertidal species compete for space and food by _ and _ secretions

In soft-sediment communities, deposit feeding populations may cause _ of renewable resources or seasonal _ of food in the sediment

Season influxes of predators such as birds and crabs, can _ local soft-sediment communities

_ salt marshes are dominated by _, which bind fine sediment and build _ above low water

Shoots above the surface of a spartina marsh are connected below by a _ system

Sediments in a spartina marsh are usually _, thereby limiting oxygen and nutrient uptake

Some co-occurring animal species _ marsh growth by _ the sediment and adding _

Vertical zones in salt marshes develop from _ and the ability to survive salt and _

Floating _ often smothers plants and creates patches of bare _

Spartina salt marshes produce large amounts of _ and dissolved _ matter, which may influence the _ of salt marsh benthos

Biologically diverse intertidal and emergent woody plant communities

Mangroves are adapted to the _ sediments by air-projecting and shallow _

Mangrove colonization may be strongly affected by _ predation on seedlings

Mangroves and upland vegetation compete for _

Mangrove sediments have rich _ populations, and creek systems are _ for fishes

Intimately connected with their watersheds, which supply both water and nutrients

Decreasing _ at the headwaters of an estuary can reduce the number of marine _

Estuaries and _ environments comprise a two-phase system

Some species can _ the estuarine flow to the sea, others return from the sea at _

Tidal exchange may be a driving force for _ feeding in smaller estuaries

In the _ model of community structure, there are indirect effects and alternative stable states

In the top-down model of community structure, there is a _ loop in predatory and competitive interactions

In the _ model of community structure, nutrients and _ affect the number of _ levels and the length of trophic _

The _ model looks at the effects of abiotic and physiological stressors

Consumers are _ and thus more susceptible to stress

Prey are _ and thus more resistant to stress

Consumers are mobile and thus _ to stress

Prey are sessile and thus _ to stress

According to the disturbance model, physical _ can reduce population sizes to levels where _ are not in short supply, thereby preventing _

In the Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis, low level or infrequent disturbance allows the dominant _ to _ other species

In the Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis, high or frequent disturbance drives species locally _

At intermediate levels of disturbance, a community remains in a high-_, mid-_ stage

Succession following disturbance also depends on _: which species settle and their settlement _

Sea grasses are marine _, or flowering plants, confined to shallow water and extending mainly by _ systems within the _

Sea grass beds most easily colonize sediment after previous colonization by _

Sea grasses are in widespread decline because of _

Sea grasses deter the entry of some _, and may enhance the abundance of _ feeders within the bed

Subtidal rocky reefs and kelp forests often comprise a related _ of local systems

Subtidal rocky reefs and kelp forests are often dominated in shallow waters by _, and by _ animals in deeper waters

Subtidal rocky reefs harbor abundant communities of algae and are often dominated by colonial _

Subtidal rocky reefs are patchy, with alternations of rocks dominated by rich invertebrate assemblages and turf-forming _ red algae

Animals in subtidal rocky reefs are often short on space, suggesting the importance of _

Kelp forests are dominated by a few brown seaweeds (_), with large _ and high growth rates

A typical kelp life cycle alternates between a large asexual _ and a tiny filamentous _

Upper-canopy kelps have first access to _, but lower-canopy kelps survive better after a _

In kelp forests in the northeastern Pacific, _ sit atop a strong trophic _, but in southern California other _ are also important

Succession in a kelp forest depends on the interplay of _ pressures, _, competition for _, and colonization by _

Development of coral reefs is limited by _ temperature, open marine _, available _, and low _

Reefs are composed of corals, algae, _, and other _ organisms

Symbiotic algae called _ contribute to coral _ and are essential for high _

_ corals contribute most to reef growth

Hermatypic corals contribute most to reef _

Reefs are _-resistant and topographically _, with many _

Coral _, more common in the Pacific, are ring-shaped island groups arising from oceanic _ that reach the surface but slowly _

Both atolls and coastal reefs have prominent _ zones, each with a different set of dominant _

Corals in reefs are _ or may occur as separate sexes

Coral gametes are produced either by _ fertilization and release of the _ larvae, or _ spawning followed by the formation of larvae

_ exert strong effects on the composition of reefs mediating interactions between corals and _

Top _ such as roving fishes appear to exert strong _ effects on coral reefs

Colonial coral species compete for limited space by _, _, and aggressive interactions

Coral reefs are often subject to disturbance from _, tropical _, and _ events in the eastern Pacific

Coral reefs and nearby environments harbor some of the most remarkable _ in the sea

Predation on coral reefs is intense, but many species have evolved defenses such as retreating into protective _, _ activity, and _ compound

Kelp forests in the northern hemisphere are found mainly between the latitudes of _ and _ degrees

Kelp has an apical _, leaf-like _, floats called _, and holdfasts

Kelp forests fix up to _ g of carbon per m^2 per year through primary production

A habitat that is created primarily by organisms

Because it creates a biogenic habitat, kelp is a _ species

A group of species that consumes the same general resources in the same habitat

Kelp forests and _ are alternate stable states

In a kelp forest, there are _ urchins, and they are found mainly in _

In an urchin barren, there are _ urchins and they are highly _

A strong _ year can cause physiological stress on kelp, leaving them vulnerable to _

Kelp forests and urchin barrens can be forced from either stable state to the other by _

A _ species has an effect on a community disproportionate to its biomass

A _ species has an effect on a community proportionate to its biomass

Coral reefs contain _% of all species in the ocean

Corals are in the phylum _, order _

Corals reproduce _-_ nights a week

Corals are simulataneous _

Broadcast spawning by reef-building coral overwhelms _

Many corals grow about _ cm/yr, but the most massive species grow _ cm/yr

During the day, coral polyps are _, and the zooxanthellae _

During the night, coral polyps are _, and they capture plankton with their _

Dinoflagellates that live symbiotically in coral; have a mutualistic relationship

Zooxanthellae provide coral with "light-enhanced" _

Zooxanthellae provide coral with enhanced _ production

Corals provide a complex _ habitat, and their high _ traps nutrients

The _ pattern of coral structures provides many shelters for organisms of varying sizes

Corals are found between _ degrees N/S

Coral prefers water at around _ degrees C; calcification rate declines below _ degrees C

Coral is found at depths above _ meters, needing deep _ water on a hard _

Coral prefers clean water with oceanic salinity - about _ parts per thousand

_ reefs are found along the edge of a landmass, _ reefs occur when a landmass begins to erode away, and _ are rings with no land

The Great Barrier Reef consists of _ reefs along _ km of Australian coast

Over _% of the world's mangroves have been cleared by humans

_-_ grams of C/m^2/yr are fixed by coral reefs

Micro-organisms on reefs provide a high level of _ fixation

Intense _ (eating feces) occurs on reefs

Benthic algae supplements coral photosynthesis, providing _-_ grams of C/m^2/yr

Coral polyps consume over _% of the plankton that passes over a reef

Coral reefs contain about _ million species

There are at least _ coral species on reefs

There are at least _ species of fish living on coral reefs

Almost _ of total fish species live on coral reefs

When cryptofaunal colonial invertebrates compete for space in a "rock-paper-scissors" manner, it is described by the _ hypothesis

The _ hypothesis states that competition for resources on coral reefs results in _

The _ hypothesis invokes low larval settlement to explain the coexistence of species utilizing the same resources

The _ hypothesis assumes that high larval settlement suffers high predation on new recruits, thus allowing for coexistence of adults

Coral reefs benefit humans by providing _ and recreation, _ protection, _, and new _

In terms of ecosystem goods and services, coral reefs are _ valuable than any forest per unit area

It is estimated that _'s of species on coral reefs have already been lost

_% of coral reefs were lost in the past, _% will be lost in the next 10-20 years, and an additional _% are expected to be lost in 20-40 yrs

A threat to coral reefs: _ from coastal runoffs smothers coral polyps

A threat to coral reefs: _ from pollution causes _ to overgrow and kill corals

A threat to coral reefs: _ and the shell & coral trade, destructive _ methods

A loss of _ causes seaweeds to overgrow corals

Coral reefs exist in alternate _ states and positive _ loops push them back and forth between surplus or too little _

A threat to coral reefs: _ species

A threat to coral reefs: ocean _ causing intensified storms, a _-year trend related to a rise in ocean temperature

A threat to coral reefs: coral _ caused by ocean warming, in which the corals expel symbiotic zooxanthellae and eventually die

Coral bleaching is most severe during _ years, with the year _ being the worst on record

A threat to coral reefs: emergent _ caused by ocean warming - associated with bleaching

A threat to coral reefs: ocean _ resulting from carbon dioxide dissolved in water, making _ less available to corals, shellfish, etc

Coral reefs can be saved locally by the implementation of marine _

Coral reefs can be saved globally by a reduction of _ emissions